The politics of ‘best practice’ (BP) in the interplay of discourse about technology enhanced learning (TEL) in HE more

The politics of ‘best practice’ (BP) in the interplay of discourse about technology enhanced learning (TEL) in HE Sarah Hayes Abstract “The concept of best practice usually evokes some strong emotions from educators; what exactly is best practice?” Jakes, D, from http://jakes.editme.com/BestPractice There are extracts like this in online discussion postings that suggest a ‘problem’, some kind of change may be desirable. If there is dominant discourse about ‘best practice’ that can be identified, in connection with the use of technologies to support learning, how might the different ‘voices’ be revealed? This paper suggests a systematic search of available web-based discourse about ‘best practice’ (BP), in the technology enhanced learning (TEL) context, would be useful, as a starting point, for a critical discourse analysis (CDA). The overall intention is to establish the ‘ideological function’ of this term of BP. Is it part of the broader ‘marketisation’ of universities and the language of ‘new capitalism’? For example, what ‘agendas’ might it conceal and what might it marginalise, when some practices for TEL are declared as ‘best’ and others are not? Or is it simply a helpful way to encourage participation in the use of technologies effectively? Quantitative data around BP, was collected via web searches, using freely available corpus linguistics tools to establish frequency patterns worthy of further exploration. It is emphasised though, that critical interpretation requires the “historical knowledge and sensitivity possessed by human beings not by machines (Fowler, 1991). Therefore carefully selected CDA techniques are recommended to examine the social, cultural and political environment around the qualitative data, as an ‘interpretive resource’ (Mautner, 2005) Introduction It could appear there are good reasons to aspire to a model of ‘best practice’ (BP), when introducing a new technology to support learning. It seems ‘common sense’ to seek examples of ‘practice’, considered by others to be ‘best’. However, when imagining where a model of BP comes from, who decides it qualifies and what practices might not meet BP criteria, we may question what, or whose purpose, BP serves. Is there disparity between BP and people’s personal pedagogical aims for TEL? This paper is concerned with ‘revealing’ the ‘different voices’ that are ‘bringing forth’ the discourse of ‘best practice’ into TEL and questioning related ideologies. Insights from Heidegger on ‘bringing forth’, ‘revealing’ and the origins of the word ‘technology’ help clarify why an investigation of ‘BP’, as a model for TEL, is recommended. Firstly, consideration of technology as a ‘way of revealing’, (Heidegger, translated by Lovitt, 2009) as opposed to a mere resource to be exploited for what can be yielded, allows important aspects of humanity to be brought forth. So, rather than dominate the consciousness with the ‘force of technology for excellence’, we might appreciate more aesthetically what technology might offer ‘as a mode for revealing truth’. In relation to learning, this presents possibilities, rather than conclusions. Heidegger places modern technology in ‘techne’, the Greek origin to which it belongs: the name for activities and skills of the craftsman, the arts of the mind and the fine arts. The spread of modern technology across social life now leaves little to stand out as culturally different. It becomes harder to discern what it is to be ‘human’ and creative. ‘Being in the world’ is understood to ‘include tacit skills, implicit beliefs and patterns of behaviour’ (Heidegger, in Walters & Kop, 2009). Whilst the computer, in its current form with internet capabilities was not witnessed by Heidegger in his lifetime, he did forsee the "language machine," or the sprachmaschine. An image of a PC as a ‘language machine’ seems apt when language frames how technology is perceived, and technology enables language like ‘best practice’ to spread. ‘Language in use’, around BP, in a range of contexts on web pages, could reveal whether “opaque relationships of dominance” (Wodak, 2001) exist to move us away from the essence of ‘techne’. Is BP simply a ‘buzz phrase’ that has led to a ‘linguistic drift’, or is it a more systematically engineered attempt by groups to standardize? The underlying assumption is that language is ‘loaded’, not neutral, and that dominant ideologies might be ‘sustained through textual practice’ (Simpson & Mayr, 2010). The research is underpinned by the premise that the speaker “embodies in language his experience of the phenomena” (Fowler, 1991) of BP. For the Greeks, techne was closely linked to poiesis, the poetic. The possibilities of techne offer another ‘mode of revealing’ how technology might support learning, a different, but frequently unheard voice, offering alternatives to the discourse of ‘best practice’. Marketisation, standardization and globalization within new capitalist agendas It is acknowledged that this study is not neutral, or disinterested. A reflexive approach is important therefore, as instances and usage of BP are actively sought in order to critically appraise and try to clarify implications. Indeed a ‘critical approach’ itself should be open to critique and to self-question. What education is for, is a question the reader is asked to keep in mind whilst considering aspects of the historical and political arena in which scenarios of ‘best practice’ are played out. What has been described as ‘New Capitalism’ and related language that reinforces a ‘marketing’ type of approach within education, is questioned to ask if this dominates and conceals ‘other’ debates. The term of New Capitalism has been applied to the ‘colonization and restructuring of fields such as politics, education and culture by the economic field’ (Fairclough, 2002). There is emphasis on how global processes affect local processes. New Capitalism is considered ‘knowledge-based’ and accelerated and proliferated by the media and the use of new communication technologies. ‘The best practices of e-business are revolutionising not just technology itself but the whole process through which services are provided’ (Boys & Ford, 2008). Senior managers in further (FE) and higher education (HE) are offered ‘best-practice’ guidance for applying e-business approaches to their institutions:‘From supporting teaching and research to managing strategic partnerships as part of business and community engagement, e-business is bringing new opportunities in efficiency and service improvement’ (JISC: Joint Information Systems Committee, 2009) The spread of an ‘e-business’ approach requires justification for the purchase of systems that support TEL, thereby driving the requirement for ‘best practices’ to be demonstrated. Consider also the ‘Partners in Learning Network’:- ‘We are a global community of educators who value innovative uses of information & communication technology that improve learning’ (Microsoft, 2010) The assumption is that innovative uses of information & communication technology are directly linked to improving learning. Is learning that is not enhanced by an innovative use of ICT, less valuable? “a global initiative designed to actively increase access to technology and improve its use in learning (Aneeqaishaq, 2010) The ‘Partners in Learning Network’ invite teachers to: ‘Collaborate with like-minded colleagues and improve the quality of education globally’ (Microsoft, 2010) There is much emphasis in these approaches on ‘improvement’ and helping to realise potential. Partners in Learning Network’ work is supported through Microsoft who state: ‘our mission and values are to help people and businesses throughout the world realise their full potential’ Is there room left for ‘techne’ if businesses, education and people within each country and culture experience this global approach towards TEL? In The Politics of Comparison and the Proliferation of ‘Best-Practices’ in Early Childhood Education, Jessica Ball points to a “proliferation of branded programs touted as ‘best practices’ based on the authority of Eurowestern science or, simply, persuasive marketing of training, toys, tools and teaching techniques” (Fleer, 2003; Kincheloe, 2000). Concerns are raised about standardized measurement tools “increasingly being used to set agendas, plan policy, and transfer ‘best practices’ from one country to another”.(Ball, 2010) How does this impact on the “culture embodied in the ways children are raised”? Is there room for cultural difference, individual creativity? To try to determine if similar agendas are played out in HE, and globally applied, the data described below was gathered and analysed. Methodology The methods used were designed to investigate how language supports the fluid use of BP for TEL in HE. Data was gathered using the corpus linguistics tools: Web Corp and AntConc during June 2010. Firstly, Web Corp, a linguistic search engine, was utilized to perform a search on the phrase: ‘learning technologies’. Results yielded 43 web sites which were searched for instances of BP. Searches yielding nothing were discarded, whilst those referencing ‘best practice’ were saved as text files, categorised by genre, and examined using AntConc: a freeware concordancer software program Quantitative results A corpus was created for each of these genre:Company 1442 word types, 5195 words total Government 1509 word types, 7699 words total Non-profit Organisation 577 word types, 2067 words total University 1263 word types, 5363 total Blogs about best practice 837 word types 3612 words total The top ten word counts are shown below to question how usage changes from genre to genre. Then the concordance tool in Antconc was used to demonstrate which words closely cluster around BP Points of interest Initial observations reveal that ‘best’ and ‘practice’ almost always occur together and are only discussed separately in the blogs where people attempt to deconstruct BP meaning. Though understandable, due to the nature of the search, this is also indicative of general ‘adoption’ of the phrase. ‘Share’ and ‘sharing’ have high counts in the Company and Government genres, whilst for universities these do not appear in the top ten words. Word count 444 442 33 27 25 18 15 14 14 14 Company Word count 650 648 47 44 29 27 24 24 22 22 Government Organisation Best Practice Share Sharing Guidance Guidelines Identify Sector Learning Research Word count 174 174 46 46 46 46 16 11 10 6 Non-profit Organisation Best Practice award Others replicate teams learning development technology Activities Word count 447 447 58 50 23 23 22 21 18 17 University Word count 241 233 18 17 17 16 13 12 10 10 Blogs on best practice Best Practice term best Think Context practices people Better useful Best Practice Share Technology sharing learning business educational enabled products Best Practice Research guidelines Implementation Learning guideline nursing Solving emerging Figure 1: Quantitative results from each corpus University Data from university web pages showed guidelines directly followed use of the words BP in 42 instances, with guideline following BP in 19 instances and guidance in 11. Guide is used 14 times in relation to BP and apply often precedes BP. Other words clustering around BP include: ‘to comply with BP’; ‘Identify and promote BP’; ‘Developed to reflect BP’ and ‘validate current BP’, ‘full compliance and BP’; ‘events to share BP’; ‘dissemination of BP’, ‘embed BP’, ‘publish BP guidelines’. Implementation is used 23 times in relation to implementing BP guidelines Preoccupation with BP and tutor compliance with validated examples, seems unlikely to encourage much student input to how sessions using technologies are designed. Consider now these results from the government genre:- Government Apply precedes BP 10 times Best practice guidelines occurs 42 times Implementation and sustainability of best practice guidelines occurs 4 times In 10 cases BP is described as a principle In 3 cases BP is described as something you can assess in e-learning settings In another 3 cases: lesson plans that exemplify best practice teaching In 6 cases dissemination of BP is observed. In 3 cases disseminate BP is used Other phrases are: ‘Improved access to existing BP, transport knowledge in developing countries’ and ‘increased understanding of BP nationwide to ultimately improve teaching’; ‘showcases BP and innovative development, creating beacons’; ‘culture of continuous improvement, sharing best practice and achieving best value’; ‘a user-driven evaluation marker for BP’; ‘BP overall success ratings’ Essentially, phraseology from the Government and University web sites is similar. Company In the company category, the word share precedes BP 35 times, and sharing precedes BP 26 times, for example:‘encouraging collaboration and sharing of best practice’ Other phrases include: ‘the report delves into best practice information’; ‘It will conclude with best practice guidelines’; ‘kicks off a series of best practice studies by this leading analyst’. There is emphasis on: ‘continual improvement and planning best practice’, suggesting that there will always be better and better examples of TEL to apply, but the suggested model does not account for cultural values with regard to learning, or for the concept of ‘techne’. The intention is to use the ‘voice of teachers’, but ‘practical advice on education’ must fit a Microsoft framework:‘give practical advice on education best practice through the voice of teachers’ ‘able to follow Microsoft Services best practice materials. Following this framework’ Non-Profit Organisation The non-profit organisations who promote TEL used the word ‘replicate’ 46 times:‘For others to replicate this best practice’ ‘teams’ and ‘award’ were also counted 46 times, along with the word ‘others’ Emphasis seems to be on encouraging BP more than applying guidelines or insisting on compliance with, but the aim is to achieve:‘The use of best practice in all aspects of learning’ ‘best practice in repurposing and sharing of’ ‘To develop communities of BP in the use of technologies’ ‘To show what challenges confront international bodies together to explore BP’ ‘best practice acquisition model’ Blogs about best practice Confusion about what BP means in the TEL application can be found on blogs and forums where debate raises questions and seeking clarification:‘Perhaps the definition of best practice needs defining’; ‘Useful to define what is best practice in a procedure to embed’; ‘Put action research results into best practice. It simply doesn’t work’; ‘Terribly vague. Ya call that best practice. Its vacuous. Blah Blah’ Some comments suggest that BP is a practical solution: ‘The notion of a best practice is really just an invitation’; ‘A more useful way to look on best practice is more to do with procedural aspects’; ‘Useful to define what is best practice to embed a You Tube video in Blackboard’; ‘Version control is an absolute best practice. No questions. No discussions!’; ‘The best way of thinking about BP is something based on a formative evaluation’ Others express concern at:‘Moralising that lies behind best practice’; ‘When people pretend that a best practice exists’; ‘Say something is a best practice, you may impress the uninitiated’; ‘People who profess best practice rarely show lower practices’; ‘Not properly tried and yet is written into a so-called best practice’; ’The best practice for dealing with discordant voices’ The ‘problem’ of BP for TEL seems linked with differing perceptions as to whether there is ‘harm’ in using this label, or buzzword. Yet powerful corporations promote open sharing of learning resources and collaborative networks to ‘improve the quality of education globally’, governments and university strategists actively recommend guidelines and compliance with only ‘benefits’, not drawbacks, communicated by these groups. What is the ‘ideological function’ of BP for TEL, how powerful is it when technology aids its transmission? Should it be accepted, or contested, by lecturers? The role of power and language The role of power, as consensual, jointly agreed, upheld and in democratic societies even seen as ‘legitimate’ was observed by Weber (1978) and links with the concept of hegemony (Gramsci, 1971). Hegemony, where there is consent to the moral and political values of dominant groups has been applied, in relation to the role of discourse, or language-in-use, by Fairclough. A ‘discursive event’ has been described as three dimensional: encompassing written or spoken text, discourse practice (which links a text to its context), and social practice (which brings in power relations and ideologies). In other words, examining what a text ‘embodies’ necessarily requires inspection both within and around the words. So best practice used within a text can promote different understandings when linked with different contexts and it can carry with it ideologies that may vary with intent. Halliday describes language as the resource we utilize for ‘making meaning’:‘having evolved the power of semiosis, we encode all of our experience in semiotic terms.’ (Halliday, 1993) Language borrowing techniques from marketing, advertising and business is now in abundance in education and is termed ‘commodification’ of discourse (Fairclough & Mauranen,1997). Universities use marketing tools and ‘buzz phrases’ to be perceived as ‘high quality’, ‘cutting edge’, centres of ‘best practice’, in short, to have a premium image. Such business-related lexis (Simpson & Mayr, 2010) for increasingly aggressive marketing of what the university ‘does’, whilst apparently separate from teaching duties that lecturers perform, is able to enter the classroom via many routes. Language, nominalisation and interdiscursivity ‘Language is a lot like a road: its use is not determined by its structure, but by its users’ (Downes, 2003) The analogy of a road performing different functions for different users is like the language of BP. When caught in traffic jams we tend to blame the ‘conditions’ and these are rather detached from the mode of transport we are using. Best practice can be detached, nominalised and therefore, in a similar way to ‘market forces’, be adopted whenever and wherever it proves useful. Does BP, a nominalsed entity as an agent of process, suggest lecturers can be divided into those who take ‘this approach’ and those who don’t, e.g BP was, or wasn’t, used? Did, or didn’t work? Fairclough refers to the ‘technologisation of discourse’ (Fairclough, 1996), whereby methods of discourse technology, such as interviewing, teaching and advertising might now use almost ‘context-free’ discourse practice (Simpson & Mayer, 2010). Such ‘expert systems’ (Giddens, 1991) include knowledge about language that can be effectively applied in a range of contexts, so effective in fact, that it can conceal communicative intentions and become generally accepted. Through ‘interdiscursivity’, a discourse ‘genre’ from one area of life, may be applied to influence another. BP, if not deconstructed, remains a rarely disputed term that has arisen, gained momentum and moved almost virally through the worlds of business, government and education. Its surge in use in universities and institutions during recent years might fade, but it could be replaced by other terms for similar use. Conclusions This paper has considered the language of BP for TEL in HE, its impact and implications. The historical and cultural context, the embedding of this phraseology from an early age through discourse, locally and globally, can give the impression that BP is just ‘common sense’. However, we should question where values lie before accepting naturalization of ideological positions. Where discourse of BP is self serving, driven by economic and political interests, it reinforces a ‘value for money’ approach with students considered as consumers and not addressing critical understanding, causing us to question exactly what HE is for. Mautner recommends separating ‘institutional from individual, public service from commercial offerings and locating contributions in the wider socio-political frameworks that help us assess communicative intent’ (Mautner, 2005). Analysis using linguistic tools can reveal ideological functions of phrases like BP, enabling us to ‘bring these to the surface for inspection’ (Fowler, 1991). Returning to technology as ‘techne’, if technology is allowed to become an instrument that humans use to ‘reveal’, we may discover a more honest approach to TEL. Technology does not ‘deliver’ as such, people do and therefore its use should not be audited, but revealed. What people deliver is not ‘best’ practice but ‘varied’ practice, that when imbued with individual creativity, provides rich and interesting results. For this to happen there needs to be a discourse of BP that challenges standardization and “a sense of curriculum as resources, as syllabus, rather than as something richer and experienced by people” (Oliver, 2009) If we reject technological determinism, that portrays TEL with the ‘technology’ part being the part that enhances learning, we can consider alternatives to ‘best practice’ where ‘people’ enhance learning, using technologies to reveal creativity and construct knowledge. If the emphasis is moved from BP to re-examining personal pedagogy then new technologies could support us in imagining dynamic possibilities, rather than collecting static practices. 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Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis London: Sage, pp. 1-14 Sarah Hayes, BA (hons), MSc, PG Cert for HE Sarah works as Learning Technologist within Languages and Social Sciences at Aston University and is undertaking her PhD in Sociology. Previously she was a lecturer and project manager at University of Worcester, authoring papers about repositories and Open Educational Resources for teaching and learning. 13